A House Divided: The Story of Great Britain

On May 1, 1707, a momentous transformation reshaped the political landscape of the British Isles: the formation of Great Britain through the union of England and Scotland.

This union included Wales, which had already been annexed into England during the 16th century. Today, the United Kingdom stands as a union of four constituent countries—England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland—yet the path to this union has been fraught with conflict, negotiation, and centuries of complex history.

Even now, the future of the United Kingdom remains uncertain, as growing nationalistic sentiments within its individual nations threaten to unravel the centuries-old alliance.

The roots of the United Kingdom's formation trace back to the 10th century with the establishment of the Kingdom of England in 927. England's early ambition to dominate the British Isles set the stage for future unions and conflicts. By the late 13th century, under the reign of King Edward I, England embarked on a series of aggressive campaigns, beginning with the conquest of the western Principality of Wales.

Edward I successfully subdued Welsh resistance, ultimately incorporating Wales into English territory. To signify his dominance, Edward began the tradition of bestowing the title "Prince of Wales" upon his heir—a practice that continues to this day.

In contrast, Scotland's resistance to English rule sparked the First War of Scottish Independence in the late 13th century, a conflict immortalized in popular culture by the film Braveheart. Unlike Wales, Scotland managed to maintain its sovereignty through two wars of independence, preserving its political institutions and cultural identity.

Despite its conquest, Wales did not officially become part of the Kingdom of England until the 1530s and 1540s, during the reign of King Henry VIII. The Acts of Union between England and Wales formalized English authority over Wales, introducing English law and administration across the region. This move marked the first formal political union that would set a precedent for future acts of consolidation within the British Isles.

The death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603 brought another pivotal moment in British history. With no direct heir, the crown passed to her cousin, King James VI of Scotland, who also became King James I of England. Though both kingdoms now shared a monarch, they remained distinct political entities with separate parliaments, laws, and institutions. This period of "personal union" sowed the seeds for future efforts to unify the two nations under a single government.

Throughout the 17th century, there were numerous failed attempts to forge a complete political union between England and Scotland. Religious divisions, economic disparities, and political distrust prevented an earlier consolidation. However, by the early 18th century, circumstances had shifted dramatically, making a union not only desirable but necessary.

The eventual union of England and Scotland in 1707 was motivated by a complex mix of political, economic, and security concerns. As historian Christopher A. Whatley notes, Scotland faced significant financial hardship following the failure of the Darien scheme, an ambitious but disastrous attempt to establish a Scottish colony in present-day Panama. The venture bankrupted many Scottish investors and exposed the country's vulnerabilities in an increasingly globalized and competitive world.

Recognizing their weakened position, many Scots saw union with England as a pragmatic solution. Access to England’s expansive colonial markets and maritime power promised economic revival. Moreover, union was seen as a means to ensure political stability, preventing the restoration of a Catholic monarchy in Scotland and securing Protestant succession.

For England, fears of Scotland allying with France during the War of the Spanish Succession added urgency to the union efforts. A politically independent Scotland presented a strategic threat that England could ill afford. Thus, in a classic exercise of Realpolitik, both kingdoms found compelling reasons to unite.

The Acts of Union, passed by both the English and Scottish parliaments, created the Kingdom of Great Britain, combining the two countries under a single parliament at Westminster. While Scotland retained distinct legal and educational systems, political sovereignty was effectively ceded to a centralized British government—a fact that has remained a point of contention ever since.

The model established by the union with Scotland influenced future British policy toward Ireland. Ireland had been under English influence since the 12th century, but it was formally declared a kingdom in personal union with England in 1542 under Henry VIII. Despite centuries of English rule, Irish resistance remained fierce, culminating in a series of conflicts known as the Irish Confederate Wars and subsequent uprisings.

The Act of Union 1801 followed the model of the Scottish union, merging the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. However, the Irish union was far more contentious and fragile. Irish grievances over political representation, religious discrimination, and economic exploitation fueled decades of unrest.

Ultimately, the Irish War of Independence from 1919 to 1921 led to the partition of Ireland. In 1922, the southern portion of Ireland became the Irish Free State, and later the fully sovereign Republic of Ireland in 1937. Northern Ireland, with its Protestant majority, remained part of the United Kingdom, resulting in the modern title: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

The aftermath of World War II saw a resurgence of nationalist sentiment in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Economic hardships, cultural revival movements, and political disenfranchisement drove calls for greater autonomy and even independence. The 20th century witnessed the establishment of nationalist political parties such as Plaid Cymru in Wales and the Scottish National Party (SNP) in Scotland.

Throughout the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the United Kingdom began a process known as devolution, granting greater powers to the constituent nations. In 1998, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland each established their own devolved parliaments or assemblies, allowing them to legislate on a range of domestic issues.

Yet, devolution has been a double-edged sword. While it quelled immediate demands for independence, it also strengthened national identities and created political institutions capable of challenging Westminster’s authority.

The 2016 Brexit referendum profoundly altered the political dynamics within the United Kingdom. England and Wales voted to leave the European Union, while Scotland and Northern Ireland voted to remain. This stark divide exposed deep fractures in the union and reinvigorated debates about independence and self-determination.

In Scotland, the Brexit decision was particularly controversial. Many Scots felt that their European identity had been stripped away without their consent.

The 2014 Scottish independence referendum had resulted in a 55% vote to remain in the U.K., but Brexit shifted public opinion dramatically. Nicola Sturgeon, Scotland’s First Minister, has since advocated for a second independence referendum, arguing that the circumstances have fundamentally changed.

Similarly, Brexit has reopened discussions about Irish reunification. The reestablishment of a hard border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland was a major concern during Brexit negotiations. The Northern Ireland Protocol, designed to avoid such a border, has nonetheless fueled political tensions and economic disruptions, leading to renewed calls for a referendum on Irish unity.

The formation of Great Britain in 1707 and the later expansion into the United Kingdom were milestones of political ambition and pragmatism. Yet the forces that once bound the nations together—economic necessity, security concerns, and shared governance—are now sources of tension and division.

As nationalism grows stronger within Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and as political landscapes evolve in the post-Brexit era, the United Kingdom faces an uncertain future. The delicate balance between unity and autonomy, forged through centuries of conquest, compromise, and consolidation, is being tested as never before.

The next decades will likely determine whether the United Kingdom can adapt to these pressures and preserve its union, or whether it will gradually devolve into a collection of independent nations once again. One thing is certain: the story of Britain’s union, born in the age of kings and empires, remains a living, evolving chapter in the modern world.